The Advanced
Ergonomics Manual Table of Contents
A. What
is Ergonomics?............................................................................................ 3
-
Definition
-
Goal
B. Developing
and Implementing an Ergonomics Program.................................. 5
-
Introduction
o
What is
an Ergonomics Program?
-
Components of an
Ergonomics Program
-
Health and Risk
Factor Surveillance
o
Discussion
Passive Surveillance
o
Passive
Surveillance - Does a Problem Exist?
o
Active Surveillance
o
Active Surveillance
When to Use?
-
Job Analysis and
Design
-
Medical Management
o
Roles and
Responsibilities
o
Job Familiarity
o
Early Reporting
o
Access to
Health Care Providers (HCPs)
o
Evaluation
of the Worker by the HCP
o
Treatment
of the Worker
o
Follow-Up
and Referral
o
Job Placement
Evaluations
-
Training
-
Program Documentation
and Evaluation
o
Is the Program
Successful?
-
Starting the Program
o
Process
Steps
o
Management
Commitment
o
Setting
Up the Ergonomics Team
-
Maintaining the
Program
o
Assessing
the Program
o
Responsibilities
of the Ergonomics Committee
o
Discussion
-
Summary
C. The Future
of Ergonomics..................................................................................
29
-
Introduction
o
What is
the Direction of Ergonomics?
-
Industry Guidelines
o
Food Distribution
o
Semiconductor
Industry
o
The Benefits
of Industry Guidelines
-
Design-Stage Ergonomics
-
Team Ergonomics
D. Ergonomics Standards and Guidelines.................
...............................32
-
Introduction
o
Standards-Making
Organizations
-
Guidelines and Standards
o
Introduction
E.
Ergonomic
Resources .............................................
.37
-
Resources
References....................................................................................................................... 40
Attachment IA. Body Part
Discomfort Survey.............................................................. 42
A. Introduction............................................................................................................. 7
B. Determining Upper Extremity Risk...................................................................... 8
-
Introduction
·
Definition
·
Risk Factors
1. Repetition, Duration, and Recovery Time............................................. 11
-
Guidelines
·
Example of Use of ANSI Checklist
2. Force........................................................................................................ 15
-
Discussion
-
Guidelines
·
Measuring Grip Forces
·
Factors Affecting Grip Strength
3. Postures of the Upper Extremities........................................................ 22
-
Discussion
-
Neutral Postures
-
Guidelines
·
Static Postures
·
Velocity and Acceleration of Motion
·
Strength/Posture Interaction
·
Awkward Postures How Much is Too
Much?
4. Environmental Risk Factors................................................................... 31
-
Introduction
5. Personal Risk Factors............................................................................ 31
-
Introduction
6. Summary - The Relationship Between Risk
Factors and Injury/Illness..33
-
Evidence
-
Rating Risk Factors
7. Checklists................................................................................................. 35
- Discussion
C. Upper Extremity Task Design Principles.......................................................... 36
-
Introduction
1. Minimize Repetition................................................................................ 37
-
Guidelines
2. Minimize Force Requirements............................................................... 39
-
Guidelines
3. Minimize the Awkward Postures of Hands
and Arms......................... 43
-
Guidelines
4. Minimize Exposure to Environmental
Factors...................................... 47
-
Guidelines
D. Determining Manual Material Handling
Risk.................................................... 49
-
Introduction
-
Procedure
·
Data Collection
·
Task Variables
1. Selecting the Appropriate Analysis Tool.............................................. 51
-
Discussion
-
Using the Table
2. NIOSH Equation 1991 Draft................................................................... 53
-
Introduction
-
RWL
-
Equation
-
Variables
·
Horizontal Distance (H)
·
Asymmetry (A)
·
Frequency Multiplier (FM)
·
Coupling Multiplier (CM)
-
Lifting Index (LI)
-
Example of Use of the Equation
·
Description of Lifting Task
·
Determining Variables for Inclusion in the Equation
·
Calculating RWL
-
Multi-Task Procedure
·
When to use the Multi-Task Procedure
-
Validation of the Equation
-
NIOSH Equation Software
-
NIOSH Equation Cheat Sheets
3. Biomechanical Models........................................................................... 67
-
Introduction
-
3D Static Strength Prediction Program
-
Guidelines
4. Psychophysical Capacity Data.............................................................. 72
-
Introduction
5. Two-Hand Lift/Lower Data...................................................................... 73
-
Background
-
Using the Tables
·
Example
·
Lift vs. Lower
·
Combination Tasks
a. Adjustment Factors for Lifting Capacity
Data.......................... 78
-
Background
-
Guidelines
·
Working Duration (hours) Multiplier
·
Limited Headroom Multiplier
·
Asymmetrical Lifting (Twisting) Multiplier
·
Couplings (Handles) Multiplier
·
Load Placement Clearance Multiplier
·
Load Asymmetry Multiplier
·
Heat Stress Multiplier
·
Multiple-Person (team) Lifting
6. One-Hand Lift Data................................................................................. 84
-
Background
-
Using the Tables
-
Guidelines
7. Two-Hand Carry Data............................................................................. 87
-
Using the Table
·
Source
-
Guidelines
8. One-Hand Carry Data............................................................................. 89
-
Using the Table
-
Guidelines
9. Two-Hand Push Data............................................................................. 90
-
Using the Table
-
Guidelines
10. Two-Hand Pull Data............................................................................... 92
-
Using the Table
-
Guidelines
11. One-Hand Push/Pull Forces................................................................. 94
-
Background
-
Guidelines
·
One Hand Push
·
One Hand Pull
12. MMH Data for Awkward Postures.......................................................... 95
-
Background
-
Using the Tables
·
Kneeling Tasks
·
Task Description
·
Seated Tasks
·
Task Description and Recommended Weight of Lift
·
Lying Tasks
·
Task Description and Recommended Weight of Lift
E. Manual Material Handling Design
Principles................................................. 104
-
Introduction
1. Eliminate or Minimize MMH................................................................. 105
- Introduction
a. Mechanization........................................................................... 105
- Guidelines
·
Example
·
Why Do Mechanical Assists Go Un-Used?
·
Cautionary Note Regarding Mechanization
b. Eliminate or Reduce Rehandling............................................. 108
- Guidelines
·
Examples
c. Increase Object Weight............................................................ 108
- Guidelines
·
Examples
2. Reduce Stress Associated with MMH................................................ 109
- Introduction
a. Reduce Object Weight............................................................. 109
- Guidelines
·
Examples
·
Comment 2-Person Lifting
b. Changing Handling Method..................................................... 111
- Guidelines
c. Reducing Push/Pull Tasks....................................................... 112
- Guidelines
d. Hand Truck / Cart / Caster Design.......................................... 113
- Guidelines
·
Hand Trucks and Carts
·
Casters
·
Weight of Load
e. Container Design...................................................................... 117
- Guidelines
·
Types of Containers
·
Containers that are Manually Handled
·
Handle Design
·
Containers that are Loaded into or Unloaded
From
f. Handwheel Design.................................................................... 121
- Guidelines
3. Minimize Stressful Postures................................................................ 122
- Introduction
a. Minimize Bending..................................................................... 123
- Guidelines
b. Minimize Twisting...................................................................... 124
- Guidelines
c. Reduce Extreme Horizontal Reaches..................................... 126
- Guidelines
d. Reduce Above Shoulder Work................................................ 127
- Guidelines
e Minimize Kneeling Tasks......................................................... 128
- Guidelines
f. Provide Knowledge of Load
Characteristics......................... 128
- Introduction
- Guidelines
g. Avoid Extreme Hand/Arm Posture.......................................... 129
- Guidelines
4. Special Case: Patient Handling Tasks............................................... 130
- Introduction
- Guidelines
- Engineering
Controls
a.
Work Environment
b.
Work Organization
c.
Patient Handling
Lift Assists
d.
Implementing Engineering
Controls
- Administrative / Training Controls
-
Effectiveness of Ergonomic Controls
F. Physiologically Demanding Tasks.................................................................. 134
- Introduction
1. Methods to Measure Energy Expenditure.......................................... 135
- Introduction
a. Rating of Perceived Exertion................................................... 135
- Introduction
- Using the
Scale
b. Measurement of Heart Rate..................................................... 137
- Introduction
- Categorizing
Work Based on Heart Rate
- Guidelines
2. Factors Influencing Metabolic Demand.............................................. 138
- Introduction
a. Frequency of Movement, Posture and Task
Duration........... 138
- Guidelines
b. Heat Stress................................................................................ 140
-
Introduction
-
Measurement
-
Heat Stress Criteria
-
Guidelines
References.................................................................................................................... 145
A. Introduction............................................................................................................. 7
B. Applying Anthropometry to Workstation
Design................................................ 8
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
Principles
·
Anthropometric Data
1. Anthropometric Adjustment Factors for
Clothing................................. 12
- Introduction
- Guidelines
·
Shoes
·
Hard Hat
·
Work Gloves
·
Clothing
2. Additional Anthropometry Sources....................................................... 14
-
Sources
C. Workstation Design Guidelines......................................................................... 15
-
Introduction
·
Definition
·
Goals
·
Types
-
Selection
·
Procedure
·
Example
-
General Principles of Workstation Design
·
Provide Adequate Room for All Work Materials
·
Accommodate the Neutral Posture
·
Accommodate the Primary Viewing Area
·
Slanted Workstations (Angled Worksurfaces)
·
Adjustability
·
Distribution of Workload
·
Minimize Reaches
·
Layout
1. Standing Workstation Design Guidelines............................................ 25
-
Guidelines
·
Workstation Dimensions
·
Functional Working Height
·
Clearances at Standing Workstations
·
Anti-Fatigue Mats
·
Platforms
·
Footrests
·
Summary Standing for Extended Periods
·
Standing Reach Distances
1.1
Special Case Grocery Checkstand Design
-
Guidelines
1.2
Standing Computer Workstation
-
Guidelines
2. Sit/Stand Workstation Design Guidelines............................................ 42
-
Guidelines
·
Workstation Dimensions
·
Work Surface Heights
·
Sit/Lean Devices
3. Seated Workstation Design Guidelines............................................... 46
-
Guidelines
·
Workstation Dimensions
·
Reach Distances
·
Sharp Edges
·
Wrist Rests
·
Chair Design Guidelines
·
Caster Design
·
Chair Adjustment Features
·
Arm Rests - Yes or No?
·
Back Rest
·
Lumbar Pads
·
Foot Rests
·
The Seat Pan
·
Comment: Kneeling Chairs
·
Comment: Dynamic (Massaging) Chairs
·
Evaluating Seat Comfort
·
Sitting How Long is Acceptable?
4. Visual Guidelines for Workstations....................................................... 65
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
Recommended Viewing Angles
5. Special Case - VDT Work Area Design
Principles............................ 68
-
Guidelines
·
Clearances and Worksurface Heights
·
Monitor Position
·
Vertical Placement of Monitor
·
Horizontal Placement of Monitor (Viewing Distance)
·
Document Holders
·
Telephone Headsets
·
Illuminance
·
Acoustic Noise
·
Thermal Environment
·
VDT Work Breaks
·
Laptop Computers
6. Special Case Seated Microscope and
Sewing Workstations....... 77
-
Microscope Workstations
-
Sewing Workstations
7. Shelving and Passageways................................................................... 80
-
Guidelines
·
Shelving
·
Passageways
D. Ladders/Stairs/Ramps....................................................................................... 82
-
Introduction
1. Ladder Design......................................................................................... 83
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
Vertical
·
Non-Vertical
·
Safety
2. Stair Design............................................................................................. 87
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
Stair Tread
·
Discussion
·
Flights
3. Ramp Design........................................................................................... 90
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
Grade
·
Cleats
·
Handrail
·
Wheelchair
E. Control Guidelines............................................................................................... 93
-
Introduction
-
Definition
1. Control Selection..................................................................................... 94
- Guidelines
2. Recommended Physical Dimensions for
Controls.............................. 95
-
Guidelines
-
Handwheels
-
Valves and Levers
3. Ergonomic Guidelines for Controls..................................................... 103
-
Guidelines
·
General
·
Control Location
·
Control/Display Relationship
4. Keyboards and Other Data Entry Devices......................................... 107
-
Guidelines
·
Keyboards
·
Training Issue
·
Keyboard Slope
·
Segmented Keyboard Designs
·
General Alternate Input Devices
·
Ball Controls (e.g., Trackballs)
·
Comment Trackball Design
·
Mouse Controls
·
Comment Incorporating the Mouse/Trackball into an
Existing Workstation
·
Touchpads
·
Comment - Mouse versus Trackball versus Touchpad
·
Light Pens
·
Voice Recognition Systems (VRS)
F. Display Guidelines............................................................................................ 123
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
Types of Displays
·
Display Use
·
Lighting of Displays
·
Location of Displays
·
Character Size
1. Design
Guidelines for Analog Displays.............................................. 127
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
2. Special Case: VDT Display Characteristics.................................... 128
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
Monitor Type (Technology)
·
Refresh Rate
·
Resolution
·
Brightness and Contrast
·
Characters
·
Polarity
·
Color
·
Glare
·
Lighting, Glasses and Visual Comfort
o
Full-Spectrum Lighting
o
Task Lighting
o
Flicker from Lighting Systems
o
Glasses
o
Measuring Visual Fatigue
·
Reading from a VDT versus Paper
3. Illuminated Indicators............................................................................ 139
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
Color Coding
4. Grouping and Coding Display Information......................................... 141
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
Grouping Display Information
·
Coding Display Information
5. Auditory Displays.................................................................................. 144
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
G. Warning Signs and Labels...............................................................................
145
- Introduction
- Definition
- Guidelines
1. Guidelines for Effective Warning Signs
and Labels.......................... 146
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
Format-Related
·
Content-Related
·
Mode of Presentation
·
General
2. Standard-Making
Organizations and
Recommended Warning Systems...................................................... 154
-
Organizations
-
Guidelines
H. Illumination in the Workplace........................................................................... 158
-
Introduction
1. Illumination Measuring Techniques..................................................... 159
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
Procedure
·
Discussion
2. Determining Industrial Lighting
Requirements................................... 160
-
Introduction
·
Example
-
Guidelines
·
Procedure
3. Illumination and Character Size........................................................... 165
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
4. Illumination Special Cases - VDT Work,
Inspection Tasks................................................................................... 166
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
·
VDT Work
·
Inspection Tasks
References.................................................................................................................... 167
IV. HAND TOOL DESIGN, EVALUATION, AND
SELECTION
|
A. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 4
-
Background
-
Discussion
Force
Physical Dimensions
Air and Vibration
Task/Posture
B. Force........................................................................................................................ 7
-
Introduction
1 Direction of Force....................................................................................... 7
-
Guidelines
Examples
2 Handle Grip Forces..................................................................................... 9
-
Guidelines
Repetitive Grip Forces
Definitions of Grip Types
Torque
Tool Weight
Feed Force
Powered Tools
Springs
Gloves
Triggers
Center of Gravity
Tool Balancers
Air Hoses
Reaction Force (kickback)
Vibration
Cold
C Handle Features................................................................................................... 22
-
Introduction
1 Resting Hand............................................................................................ 23
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
Availability and Constraints
2 Left Handed Tools.................................................................................... 24
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
3. Surface Quality......................................................................................... 24
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
4. Handle Size.............................................................................................. 27
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
Enclosed Handle
Force/Torque
Providing Different Sized Tools
based on Hand Size
5. Handle Shape........................................................................................... 31
-
Guidelines
D Hand/Arm Postures.............................................................................................. 32
-
Introduction
1 Wrist Deviation......................................................................................... 32
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
- Applications
2. Shoulder Abduction.................................................................................. 34
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
3. Forearm Rotation...................................................................................... 35
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
E. Tool Maintenance................................................................................................. 36
-
Guidelines
Cutting Edges
Handles
Lubrication
Work Environment
Vibration
F.
Ergonomic Tool Design Examples ................................................................. 37
- Introduction
-
Examples
Hand-Held Scanners
Spray Guns
Hammers
Shovels
Manual Saws
Pneumatic Nut Runners
Pens / Writing Instruments
Screwdrivers
Syringes / Liquid Dispensing Systems
Tweezers
Knives
Power Drills
Orbital Sanders / Vibration-Producing Power Tools
References....................................................................................................................... 50
A.
Introduction
3
B.
Noise in the Workplace
..4
Introduction
·
What is Noise?
·
Sources of Noise
·
Effects of Noise
·
The Ergonomists Role
1.
Measuring Noise
..5
Introduction
Instruments
·
Sound Level Meter
·
Dosimeter
·
Octave Band Analyzer
Measurement
Techniques
·
Personal Monitoring
·
Area Monitoring
Procedures-General
2. Standards and Guidelines
7
OSHA Occupational
Noise Exposure Standard (1983)
·
Introduction
·
Using the Standard
·
Employee Daily Noise Exposure
Example
Guidelines
- Office Work Environment
3.
Control Strategies
..
.11
Introduction
Strategies
·
General Procedures
·
Design of New Facilities for Noise Control
·
Controlling Noise in an Existing Facility
- Control at the Source
·
Controlling Noise in an Existing Facility
- Control Along the Path
Sound
Absorbing Materials
Shields,
Barriers, and Enclosures
·
Controlling Noise in an Existing Facility
- Control at the Receiver
Administrative
Controls
Personal
Protective Equipment
Types
of Personal Protective Equipment
·
Controlling Noise in the Office
C. Vibration
..
19
Introduction
Definitions
Effects
Measurement
1. Whole Body
Vibration
20
Guidelines
Resonance
Suspension
2. Segmental Vibration
.
23
Guidelines
D. Temperature
.
.26
Introduction
1. Heat Stress
27
Introduction
Measurement
Heat
Stress Criteria
Guidelines
2. Cold
.
.30
Introduction
Guidelines
3. Thermal Comfort
.33
Guidelines
E. Indoor Air
Quality
..
.34
Introduction
Definitions
Health
Effects (Sick Building
Syndrome)
Design Guidelines
.
35
Recommended
Ventilation Rates
Control
Strategies
.
36
F. Slip/Fall
Risk
..
.38
Guidelines
References
41
A. Introduction............................................................................................................. 5
B. Design
for Maintainability and Assembly............................................................ 6
- Introduction
1. Troubleshooting......................................................................................... 7
- Introduction
- Guidelines
2. Design
to Improve Accessibility............................................................... 8
- Introduction
- Guidelines
Clothing
Access Openings / Clearances
Visual Requirements
Hinged Doors
Drawers
Access Port
Size and Shape
Access Port
- Quantity
Safety
Access Port
Location
Labeling
3. Designing
for Repair Issues................................................................... 18
- Introduction
- Guidelines
Maintenance
Time
Connectors / Fasteners
Conductors
Cables
Piping
Hand Tools
Circuit Boards
Labeling
Legibility
4. Designing
Maintenance Job Aids......................................................... 23
- Introduction
- Guidelines
- Procedure
5 Designing
for Assembly......................................................................... 25
- Guidelines
C. Design for the Disabled...................................................................................... 26
- Introduction
Definition
1. Assessing
Capabilities.......................................................................... 27
- Procedure
- Written Resources
- Additional Resources
2. Design
Guidelines for Specific Cases................................................. 29
- Introduction
a. Sight
Limitation............................................................................ 30
- Introduction
- Guidelines
b. Hearing
Limitation....................................................................... 32
- Introduction
- Guidelines
c. Information
Processing Impairment........................................... 33
- Introduction
- Guidelines
d. Sensation
Limitation................................................................... 34
- Introduction
- Guidelines
Wheelchairs
e. Difficulty
in Manipulating............................................................. 36
-
Introduction
-
Guidelines
f. Difficulty
in Lifting, Reaching, Carrying..................................... 38
- Introduction
- Guidelines
D. Administrative
Controls...................................................................................... 39
- Introduction
- When do we use Administrative Controls?
1. Job
Rotation............................................................................................. 40
- Introduction
- Guidelines
What Jobs do we Rotate Between?
Example
Additional Guidelines
How Frequently Should
we Rotate?
- Benefits
of Job Rotation
- Drawbacks
of Job Rotation
- Job
Enlargement
2. Microbreaks............................................................................................. 45
- Definition
- Guidelines
Types of Microbreaks
Types of Microbreaks Discussion
How often should the worker take a
microbreak?
What should the worker do during the
Microbreak?
Discussion Microbreak Software
3. Stretching,
Exercise and Work Hardening........................................... 49
- Introduction
- Guidelines
Selecting an Exercise Protocol
How Often should we Stretch?
- Do
Exercise Programs Work?
- Work
Hardening
- Wellness
Programs
4. Physical
Ability Testing (PAT)................................................................ 55
- Introduction
- Legal Issues
- Developing a PAT Program
Is a PAT Program Warranted?
Define the Physical Requirement of
the Job
Develop Test Battery
Provide Validation Documentation
-
Effectiveness of PAT Programs
5. Back
Belts, Wrist and Elbow Braces ..................................................... 59
- Introduction
-
Back Belts
How do back Belts Work?
Do Back Belts reduce Injuries?
- Wrist Braces
- Elbow Braces
6 The
Psychosocial Environment ............................................................... 61
-
Introduction
- Definition
-
Measuring Stress
-
Guidelines
References....................................................................................................................... 66
ATTACHMENT A. ERGONOMIC CHECKLISTS
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
INDEX